The Three D's
Dominance:
The dominance theory is that we live in a patriarchal society and language supports that. It seems to be mostly men in high positions of authority e.g. the prime minister or the President of the United states.
Represented by Deborah Tannen (1990) who identifies gender differences in terms of Competitiveness (Male) and Co-operative (Female).
Quote: "
The dominance theory is also represented by Pamela Fishman (1983) who identified that when women use tag questions to be more social and include people, to keep conversation flowing and to initiate conversation. "Females use tag questions to gain conversational power".
Deficit:
The Deficit theory is that women use more descriptive language and pay more attention to detail with their language whereas men use more straight to the point 'it is what it is' language. E.g. 'Mahogany' instead of 'Red'.
Represented by Robin Lakoff (1972), Lakoff identified 10 stereotypes of women's language:
1. Hedges - Phrases like 'sort of', 'kind of' and 'it seems like'.
2. Empty adjectives - 'divine', 'adorable' and 'gorgeous'.
3. Super-polite forms - 'would you mind...' or 'Is it OK if...?'
4. Apologise more - 'I'm sorry, but I think that...'
5. Speak less frequently.
6. Avoid coarse language or expletives.
7. Tag questions- 'You don't mind eating this, do you?'
8. Hyper-correct grammar and punctuation - use of prestige grammar and clear articulation - Women view language to be aspirational.
9. Indirect requests - 'I'm so thirsty' - really asking for a drink - pragmatics.
10. Speak in italics - use of tone to emphasis certain words, e.g. 'so', 'very' and 'quite'.
Quote: "It is my impression, though I do not have precise statistical evidence"- Critique.
10. Speak in italics - use of tone to emphasis certain words, e.g. 'so', 'very' and 'quite'.
Quote: "It is my impression, though I do not have precise statistical evidence"- Critique.
Difference:
The Difference theory refers to how women use language differently to men and the language used to refer to men and woman.
Represented by Deborah Cameron (1995) who argues that theorists like Lakoff see gendered language in terms of power and powerlessness. For this reason throughout western culture the masculine/ male has been the unmarked norm in language with the feminine/female the marked form. E.g. Unmarked forms include: 'manager', 'usher' and 'Paul' and the marked forms, 'manageress', usherette' and 'Pauline'.
The marked forms of language are classed as politically incorrect eliminating this form of lexis.
Tannen's view also identify gender differences in terms of competitiveness (male) and Co-operative (female).
Cameron challenges the whole idea that there are two different and contrasting languages for men and women arguing that this is a Deficit model approach = One language is inferior to the other.
She asks whether gender alone is at the core of individual identity- is the term 'genderlect' more precise or less than idiolect?
